39. 文化问题

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39 Cultural issues Often, counsellors have only limited information about the ethnic, cultural, social, family, community and general environmental backgrounds of the people who seek their help. This is unlikely to cause problems when the person seeking help and the counsellor happen to come from the same ethnic and cultural groups; however, difficulties may arise when they come from different groups. Not surprisingly, it has been found that people who are seeking help usually prefer counsellors from their own ethnic group. 1 his does not mean that counselling won’t be effective unless the person seeking help and the counsellor are front the same cultural background. What it does mean is that for a counsellor to be maximally effective when counselling a person from another culture, they need to use behaviours and strategies that fit for the person concerned. As with any person seeking help, the counsellor needs to tty to perceive the world in the way that the person perceives the world. In order to be able to do this with someone from a different cultural background from their own, the counsellor needs to tty to gain an understanding of the person’s family, social and cultural environment. This understanding should ideally include information about cultural norms, attitudes, beliefs and values. Additionally, counsellors need to be aware of their own assumptions, attitudes, beliefs, values, prejudices and biases.

Establishing a trusting relationship is critical

For successful outcomes to occur, the most important factor when counselling a person from another culture is the counsellor’s ability to join with the person so that a good, trusting working relationship can be established. Also, strategies and techniques that will fit comfortably with the person’s culturally specific ways of relating need to be used. AWARENESS OF ASSUMPTIONS, ATTITUDES, BELIEFS, VALUES, PREJUDICES AND BIASES As counsellors, each of us needs to be aware of our own racial and cultural heritage and to understand how that heritage has affected our attitudes, beliefs, values, prejudices and biases. By being aware of these, it will be easier for us to recognise when the problems we encounter while counselling stem from our own cultural background or come from some other source. Once we recognise the source of our difficulties, these can be addressed in supervision.

DIFFICULTIES FACING PEOPLE FROM OTHER CULTURES In our modern world many people have to cope with living in a society where the cultural beliefs, values and behaviours prevailing in their country of residence are different from, and in some ways incompatible with, the cultural beliefs of their family and close friends. This inconsistency often creates psychological, emotional and behavioural problems tor such people, with the consequence that they may seek counselling help.

LIVING WITHIN A DIFFERENT CULTURE A major problem for many people who live in a cultural environment that is different from that of their family is stress arising from internal conflicts. These conflicts occur when the culturally determined social and moral values of their families conflict with those of the wider society7. While recognising the person as an individual who is experiencing difficulties that might be faced by any other person, counsellors also need to be aware of the possibility that the difficulties being experienced may be related to, or compounded by, issues of race, ethnicity, gender or socioeconomic status.

Living in a different culture from your own can be stressful

Additionally, counsellors need to be aware of any discriminatory practices at a social or community7 level that may be affecting the person’s cultural group so that these can be properly understood if issues relating to them are raised during a counselling session. PERSONAL SEARCH FOR IDENTITY WITHIN A DIFFERENT CULTURE Many people who live in cultures that are different from their own encounter personal identity problems. It has been suggested that there are generally a number of stages during which such people engage in a search for their personal identities. In the first stage, the person from a minority group may accept the values and attitudes of the majority culture in an effort to fit in and be part of that culture. Surprisingly, this often includes internalising negative views of their own group. This stage of identity development may continue until the person concerned has a personal experience of racism or prejudice that forces them to see themselves as a member of a minority group. This awareness may then lead them to a personal ethnic identity7 search. The search involves efforts to learn more about their own culture and is often likely to be highly emotional. In this stage, emotions such as anger and outrage may be directed towards the majority society. When a person is experiencing the emotional problems involved in an ethnic identity search, the counsellor needs to try to help them achieve a satisfactory’ outcome with regard to this search, so that the person concerned can develop a deeper sense of belonging to a group.

CULTURAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE A PERSON'S VIEW OF THEIR WORLD Before considering specific strategies that may be useful for counsellors when counselling a person from a different cultural group to their own, we need to consider a number of factors that impact on an individual’s perceptions of their world. These factors will influence the person’s emotional responses, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, biases, relationships and behaviours. We will discuss these factors under the following headings: • individual and relationship issues • the way decisions are made • who is perceived to be a natural helper? • attitudes of the extended family • gender and gender roles • perceptions of time • use of language • spirituality • physical or emotional issues • experience of trauma.

INDIVIDUAL AND RELATIONSHIP ISSUES In Western society we place considerable emphasis on individuality and uniqueness, and a high value on a person’s individual rights. In particular, it is generally believed that a person has the right to make their own decisions and to follow a lifestyle of their individual choice. Many other cultures place a much greater emphasis on community and see an individual person in terms of the community rather than as a separate entity. In these cultures there is a sense of community responsibility and collective destiny. There is often a focus on harmonious blending and cooperation, accompanied by a high respect for the role of the elderly. Many families from southern Italy, China, Japan, Puerto Rico, Mexico and families ot African American and Indigenous Australian origin share these views.

Some cultures emphasise individuality whereas others emphasise the community

Respect from children for their parents is a very strong value in many Chinese families. This respect is shown not only by holding parents in high esteem but also by obeying them. This contrasts markedly with Western culture, where elderly people are often not greatly valued but parental obligation to children and respect for children’s rights is emphasised as being of great importance. Counsellors need to be aware of cultural differences such as these so that they can recognise conflicts that may arise in a person as a consequence of pressure caused by being exposed to conflicting cultural value systems. Inner conflict may also arise in a person when they are faced with choosing between loyalty to parents and the pursuit of their own individual goals.

THE WAY DECISIONS ARE MADE the way in which people make decisions depends to a great extent on their cultural background. In some cultures making decisions is most appropriately done in the company of other family members. In other cultures, when making decisions a higher priority is placed on maintaining harmonious relationships than on expressing an individual point of view. This is generally the case for Aboriginal people, where decisions to seek help may be the result of a community concern rather than a response to the personal problem of an individual. Typically when Aboriginal people seek help from non-Aboriginal helpers, they will make the request for help informally and through a casual meeting in an everyday social setting. Counsellors who are not Aboriginal themselves and are working with Aboriginal people also need to be aware of a number of other issues. They may need to use a ‘go-between', particularly if the business to be discussed is so sensitive that the person cannot discuss it openly. Additionally, the gender of the counsellor is important, because some issues fit into the categories of women’s business or men’s business and cannot be discussed with members of the opposite sex. Also, it is important that the person be given the choice of the meeting location. In some cases, they might choose to use a community facility, but in other cases it may be more appropriate to use a less formal setting. When helping a family it may be more appropriate to use an area outside of the family’s home rather than expect to go into the home, particularly as inviting a non-Ab original stranger inside the house would be contrary to normal practice (Vicary & Andrews, 2000).

Informal settings are more comfortable for people from some cultures

Decisions in Chinese families are generally made in quite a different way from decisions in Western families. In many Western families, decisions are made through democratic discussion and negotiation. However, in Chinese families communication patterns tend to flow down from those of perceived higher status. Consequently, in many families the father makes major decisions with little input from others.

WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE A NATURAL HELPER? Some Asian cultures put a high value on age and respect for elders, and will consult with elders when they need advice or counselling help. Because of this, people from these cultures prefer to work with older counsellors, and may find it difficult or impossible to work with young ones. In this regard it is sometimes useful for counsellors to seek the assistance of someone who is aware of cultural norms. This person can then assist by acting as a consultant to provide guidance and information with regard to possible ways of helping a particular person. When a non-Ab origin al counsellor is working with an Aboriginal person or persons, it may be useful to talk with local elders first. This can be helpful in enabling networks to be developed. Elders can then provide introductions and permission to talk with others. This is useful in building trust, which is likely to promote more positive outcomes for the counselling process.

ATTITUDES OF THE EXTENDED FAMILY Whenever possible, it is advantageous for a counsellor to gain an understanding of the prevailing social system in the family of the person who seeks help. It can be useful for the counsellor to familiarise themselves with family customs and rules, particularly with regard to verbal exchanges between people. For example, Aboriginal families generally include a wide network of people, many of whom are related in ways that could be considered distant in non-Aboriginal society. Relationships within the extended family are characterised by obligation and reciprocity. Strong restrictions are typically imposed on contact or sharing of information between certain categories of relatives. It is also important to note that in Aboriginal societies it is forbidden to say the name of a deceased person, see any photograph of the person or use anything belonging to the person until a significant period of time has elapsed since the death.

Care needs to be taken to avoid offending traditional customs

It can be useful for a counsellor to learn about the child-rearing practices of a person who seeks their help, if these are relevant to counselling — these practices vary markedly across cultures. For example, in some cultures there may be emphasis on the nuclear family, whereas in others the emphasis is on the extended family. Generally, in Chinese families child-rearing practices are focused on emphasising the importance of family ties and obligations. Praise is given for actions that are seen as benefiting the family and guilt-inducing techniques are used to maintain discipline. Children are expected to retain emotional ties with the mother, and a respectful attitude towards the father, even when they have become adults. Consequently, it is not unusual for counsellors to find that some people from a Chinese background will find it difficult to make the choices they would prefer to make because of concern that they may upset their parents. From a Western perspective this concern could be incorrectly perceived as the person being overly dependent. However, Western counsellors need to take care when working with such people, because assisting a person to become more independent might have undesirable consequences for them. Clearly, a person’s cultural background needs to be respected so that they are empowered to make decisions that fit for them.

GENDER AND GENDER ROLES 1 he norms regarding relationships between members of the same sex and members of the opposite sex vary markedly across cultures. In order to join effectively with a person when trying to help them with relationship issues, it is advantageous if counsellors are able to gain some understanding of cultural norms with regard to relationships. Additionally, gender-based norms regarding behaviour, roles and expectations vary depending on culture. We will now consider a few examples to illustrate cultural differences relating to gender. In some Aboriginal communities, mothers- and sons-in-law rarely speak directly to each other, and similar taboos also exist between other members such as men and their brothers-in-law. In these communities certain topics (for example, sexual activity) should not be discussed with a person of the opposite sex. As a result, the fears, expectations and consequences of violating culturally accepted codes will obviously have a large impact on a person’s willingness to talk about these issues in counselling.

PERCEPTIONS OF TIME For most cultures a linear view of time is appropriate. However, for several South American countries, and for Australian Indigenous people, time is viewed in terms of 'being’. Previously agreed-upon times for meeting may not necessarily hold. 1 his needs to be remembered and respected by counsellors who come from other cultural backgrounds where time keeping is the expected norm and failure to keep time is considered inconsiderate and impolite. Consequently, when negotiating appointment times with people from cultures where time is not considered to be linear, it is sensible and respectful to recognise the person’s perceptions of rime and time keeping, and to adjust expectations. For example, when arranging a meeting rime with an Aboriginal person, it may be helpful for the person to be invited to select the times that suit them best.

We need to respect that the person seeking help may have a different concept of time from ours

When working in a cultural environment where time is viewed in terms of 'being’, it is generally not advisable to miss or change meeting times, as consistency can be a major factor in promoting trust so that the individual or family can develop a positive relationship with the counsellor. What is required is consistency with flexibility.

USE OF LANGUAGE The way language is used will have a significant influence on the effectiveness of communication between the person seeking help and the counsellor. Figures of speech, complex communication, proverbs and quotations may either be familiar or confusing depending on the person’s culture. Additionally, it is important to recognise that there may be significant or subtle differences in the vocabulary and meanings of words in different cultural environments. Consequently, the fact that a person is communicating in English with an English-speaking counsellor may be misleading if the counsellor does not realise that there are subtle differences in the use and meaning of particular words. Martine Powell (2000) lists a few differences that can be useful when counselling Aboriginal people. For some Aboriginal people the word half may mean a small part but not necessarily 50 per cent. Afternoon may refer to the cool part of the day from 4.30 pm to dusk. The word guilty may be used only in reference to murder. 1 he term brother may include cousins and other extended family members. Some Aboriginal groups use he and him to refer to males, females or objects and to more than one person. Aboriginal groups, when referring to past events, frequently use the present tense when speaking in English. When working with Forres Strait Islanders it should be remembered that the word kill does not necessarily mean to kill dead.

SPIRITUALITY For many people throughout the world, spiritual beliefs hold a very high level of importance. If these beliefs are challenged or questioned the person concerned may well be alienated. As counsellors, when working with people from other cultures, or people who have different beliefs from ours, we need to suspend our own beliefs. In order to join with and help a person we need to try to understand their spiritual beliefs and to see their world in the context of those beliefs. This may be particularly important with respect to a person’s beliefs with regard to the role and function of traditional healers and spiritual and religious influences.

It is important to respect a person s spiritual values and beliefs

Spirituality pervades every aspect of the lives of people from most indigenous cultures. For example, Aboriginal communities have strong spiritual traditions where dreams and beliefs about how mystical forces can influence nature figure prominently.

PHYSICAL OR EMOTIONAL ISSUES When listening to a person’s story it can be useful to remember that not everyone appreciates the value of using a systematic flow of ideas with careful delineation of issues. To use a metaphor, some people prefer to allow their thoughts to wander around rather than to be focused on heading in one direction. However, this process can be useful, as what is likely to occur is that their thoughts will add significant elements to central themes in their story from time to time. Particular cultural groups who have a common histoiy of past experiences that unite them and help them to define who they are may also experience emotions which are common to the group. It is useful to understand the common history and the emotions that are associated with that history7. For example, counsellors of any ethnic background who meet with people with a histoiy of white oppression need to understand, appreciate and respect the anger that this generates; counsellors need to understand their own response to that anger, whatever that may be, and deal with that response appropriately so that the counselling relationship is enhanced. Issues brought to counselling sometimes reflect connections between the individual and the community. For example, the Aboriginal perception of connections between the individual, the community and the land influences the way in which Aboriginal people view problems. This has implications for counselling. For example, individuals from non-Ab original communities might view alcohol abuse as being a personal problem requiring an individual treatment program. However, this solution may make little sense to some Aboriginal people who may perceive the origin of the difficulty as related to external forces such as the stolen generations, poor prospects of employment, or racism. It would clearly be counterproductive, and in our view unethical, for counsellors with different beliefs to these to tty to change such cultural beliefs. As counsellors, if we are to assist those who seek our help so that we maximise their opportunity to change in ways that are appropriate for them, then we must fully respect, and work within, the frameworks that make sense to them and that result from their cultural heritage.

Many Maori people view the physical environment as personified with the power to influence physical and emotional healing. Additionally, any insights that a Maori person discovers will be viewed as having a spiritual container (Bowden, 2000). Clearly, a counsellor working with a Maori person needs to recognise, respect and understand this. In traditional Chinese culture emotional expression is restrained and displays of emotional reactions do not typically occur outside the family. Feelings are usually not openly expressed except by young children. Often, if a counsellor attempts to encourage a Chinese person to express emotions directly they may be met with resistance and this is likely to be counterproductive. Additionally, such people may have difficulty in identifying, acknowledging and communicating emotional states, because they are not used to doing this. The emphasis in counselling should therefore be on the indirect expression of positive and respectful feelings. For example, interest may be shown in the ways that members of a family show how they care for each other. This focus on behaviour is respectful and indirect. EXPERIENCE OF TRAUMA The way that individuals respond to traumatic experiences will differ depending on their cultural beliefs. People from some cultures hold the belief that individuals are responsible for their own misfortune. In contrast to this, people from other cultures may view misfortune as being imposed on an individual by an outside agency such as bad luck, or may view misfortune as the consequence of bad behaviour. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES WHEN COUNSELLING A PERSON FROM ANOTHER CULTURE As counsellors, we need to develop culturally relevant ways of helping each person. Ideally, a counsellor should have knowledge about the particular group and culture of the person seeking help. However, it is obvious that this will not always be the case. There are many occasions when a counsellor will not have much information about the person’s cultural background. In such cases it may be useful to encourage the person to extend their Story to include relevant information relating to cultural issues. If a counsellor can do this successfully, they may be able to further their knowledge about the person’s family, values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. Additionally, they may discover information about the characteristics of the person’s community, and the resources in that community and in the family concerned, enabling them to understand, join with and be more helpful to the person. While exploring cultural issues with a person seeking help, it is important for the counsellor to be aware of and recognise their own cultural beliefs so that these do not intrude on the person-to-person counselling relationship. In any exploration of cultural issues the aim is to produce a better relationship with the person and to understand their problems more fully. During a counselling session it is not justifiable for a counsellor to explore cultural issues out of curiosity or merely to satisfy their own personal needs.

By joining with the person we can learn from them about their cultural background

As a counsellor it is essential to avoid stereotyping people in relation to their racial or ethnic background. We need to remember that all human beings are unique individuals. Even though we all have particular ethnic backgrounds, the extent of our individual differences makes us into very different people. However, just as an overemphasis on cultural issues may obscure the personal and individual issues of a person, an overemphasis on individuality may obscure cultural issues. As counsellors we need to treat each person as an individual, recognising their personal issues in the wider context of their cultural background and the cultural background of the wider society in which they live. Counsellors need to be aware that not only are there individual differences between the people from a particular ethnic group but also there may be significant differences between subgroups within an ethnic group. For example, Aboriginal culture and language differ markedly across different groups, and members within any particular group differ in their adherence to the group’s cultural traditions and practices (Powell, 2000). When counselling a person from a different culture, the counsellor may need to take responsibility for helping the person to understand the counselling process and issues relating to goals, expectations, legal rights and the counsellor’s orientation. Negotiation and contracting may be required in order to provide a counselling service that is acceptable and useful for the person. It can be useful for a counsellor to be able to engage in a variety of verbal and non-verbal helping responses so that they are able to send and receive both verbal and non-verbal messages accurately and appropriately, hi order to do this satisfactorily, it can be helpful for a counsellor to be aware of the ways that their own communication style is different from that of the person seeking help. This will enable them to recognise how differences in style may interfere with the counselling process. Counsellors also need to recognise that there is almost always more than one method or approach suitable for helping any particular person, and that some helping styles may be culture-bound. Counsellors should have an open mind so that they are able to use alternative ways of working. For example, it may be useful for a counsellor to consult with or work in conjunction with a traditional healer or spiritual leader when counselling a person from another culture. ESTABLISHING RAPPORT When counselling people from some cultural groups, joining and engaging may involve a lengthy process. For example, when working with Aboriginal people, counsellors need to spend time discussing their own background, where they have lived and worked, and who they might know in other Aboriginal communities. By doing this it may be possible to create an atmosphere of trust by identifying some common connections with other people or places.

EYE CONTACT Attending behaviours vary from culture to culture and from individual to individual. In fact, individual differences among people may be as important as cultural patterns. In some cultures, when listening to a person, direct eye contact is appropriate, but when talking, eye contact should be less frequent. This pattern may be directly opposite or may not apply in other cultures. In particular, many Aboriginal people find direct eye contact unfriendly and intimidating. BODY LANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL SPACE Most counsellors pay a lot of attention to the body language of the person seeking help. However, as counsellors, we need to be very care fill about interpreting body language. The only person who can accurately and consistently interpret a person’s body language is the person themselves. Even so, as counsellors, it is important for us to learn what we can from body language cues. When a counsellor works with a person from the same cultural background as their own, the meaning of body language is often fairly clear, and this can easily be confirmed by checking with the person. When working with a person from a different culture, it is far more difficult to make interpretations regarding body language because there are considerable variations in cultural nonns. In most cultures, when two people are holding a conversation they prefer the distance between them to be at least an arm’s length. However, this norm is not universal. In some Arab and Middle Eastern cultures a conversational distance of 30 cm or less is generally the accepted practice. Such close proximity would be uncomfortable for mafty Western people. Shaking hands is generally seen as a sign of welcome m Western culture. However, it can be risky to assume that this is the case in other cultures. Indeed, in some cultures if a male gives a female a handshake, this may be seen as giving a sexual invitation. In Aboriginal culture restlessness does not necessarily indicate inattention. Additionally, eye, head or lip movements may be used to indicate direction of motion, or the location of a person or event being discussed. LANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION ISSUES People are best able to express themselves meaningfully in their own language (Ivey et al., 2012). It may therefore sometimes be sensible and appropriate for a counsellor to make use of an interpreter in a counselling session. We have done this on a number of occasions with success, but recognise that there are some problems in doing this. Firstly, unless the person seeking help feels comfortable with and trusts the interpreter, they may not feel able to disclose important and relevant personal information. Secondly, it is possible that the interpreter’s own personal issues might intrude on the counselling process. Additionally, where highly emotional personal issues are raised, it may be necessary for the counsellor to help the interpreter to debrief. If this is not done, the interpreter may be left with uncomfortable and disturbing feelings.

Interpreters have feelings too!

When working with an interpreter, the counsellor's understanding of the interpreter’s use of language is important. Sometimes, in the transfer of information from the counsellor to the interpreter to the person seeking help, and from the person to the interpreter to the counsellor, subtle and important changes in meaning may occur. MICRO-SKILLS When working with a person from a different cultural background the most important thing for a counsellor to remember is to focus on creating a trusting relationship. This may mean making progress more slowly rather than attempting to encourage the person to talk through sensitive personal issues too early in the process. It is also important to be congruent and this requires the counsellor to be honest and open about their limitations, particularly with regard to their understanding of the person’s cultural background. Once rapport has been developed, it may be sensible and possible for a counsellor to invite the person to give them feedback if they become uncomfortable with any part of the process. Counsellors need to be familiar with the use of all of the micro-skills described earlier in this book. However, early in the process of relationship building it may be useful to focus more heavily on active listening than on using other skills. In particular, it needs to be remembered that a question-a nd-answer style of gathering information may be alien to people from some cultures, so until you are confident of a person’s cultural norms in this regard, it is wise to avoid the use of questions as much as is possible and to use a less intrusive and more indirect style of relating. Particularly when working with Aboriginal people, direct questions should be avoided, as they are considered intrusive and discourteous. When seeking personal details relating to people from this group, counsellors may gain by sharing information about themselves and then allowing some time for silence. This can give an indirect indication of the type of information that may be useful, without an obligation to respond immediately. This is important, because silence is a positively valued part of Aboriginal conversations. Consequently, Aboriginal people typically take longer to respond. Generally, the most useful information obtained from counselling sessions with them is information that emerges freely in a narrative style of conversation. This is likely to occur when people are encouraged to provide an account of events or situations in their own words, at their own pace and without interruption.

Learning summary The most important factor in producing successful outcomes when counselling a person from another culture is the counsellors ability to join with them so that a good, trusting working relationship is established. Counsellors need to be aware of their own racial and cultural heritage, and to understand how that heritage has affected their attitudes, beliefs, values, prejudices and biases. The emotional responses, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, biases, relationships and behaviours of a person seeking help will be affected by a number of factors. These include individual and relationship issues, the way decisions are made, who is perceived to be a natural helper, attitudes in the extended family, gender and gender roles, perceptions of time, use of language, spirituality, physical or emotional issues, and experience of trauma.

References and further reading Bowden, R. 2000, ‘Psychotherapy as a container for bi-cultural practice in Aotearoa', Psychotherapy, 7(1): 10—15. Ivey, A.E., D’Andrea, M. & Ivey, M.B. 2012, Theories of Counselling and Psychotherapy: A Multicultural Perspective, 7th edn, SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA, Ivey, A.E., Ivey, M.B. & Zalaquctt, C.P, 2016, ‘Multicultural competence, ethics, positive psychology, and resilience', in A.E. Ivey, M.B. Ivey M C.P. Zalaquctt, Essentials of Intentional Interviewing: Counselling in a Multicultural World, 3rd edn, Cengage Learning, Boston, pp. 20—49. Powell, M.B. 2000, ‘Pride: the essential elements of a forensic interview with an Aboriginal person’, Australian Psychologist, 35(3): 186—92. Vicary, D. & Andrews, H. 2000, ‘Developing a culturally appropriate psychotherapeutic approach with Indigenous Australians’, Australian Psychologist, 35(3): 181—5.