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前言

前言

过去十年间,科学界对慈悲的研究兴趣激增。鉴于佛教早在2500多年前就提出,培养慈悲心对自我和他人的幸福至关重要,有人会说:“早该如此了!” 然而,早在1796年,威廉·图克(William Tuke)在约克静修院(York Retreat)创立了最早的治疗社区之一时,他就刻意尝试营造一种慈悲、支持性的环境。医学史学家罗伊·波特(Roy Porter,2002年)提到:“图克的孙子塞缪尔指出,起初静修院尝试了医学治疗,但效果甚微;随后静修院放弃了‘医学’方法,转而采用‘道德’手段,包括善良、温和、理性和人性化的方式,并营造一种家庭氛围——结果非常显著”(第104页)。

然而,直到最近,慈悲在心理治疗中的科学研究并未受到重视。尽管卡尔·罗杰斯(Carl Rogers)明确了基于共情和积极关注的治疗关系核心要素,“慈悲的治疗关系”这一概念始终模糊不清,而将慈悲心的培养作为一种治疗目标更是全新的尝试(Gilbert,2009a,2010)。早期精神分析的弗洛伊德学派关注人性的阴暗面——性欲和暴力——而慈悲被认为是对这些冲动的升华(Kriegman,1990,2000)。行为主义者则聚焦于人们如何面对恐惧,认知疗法则专注于帮助人们解决非理性思维的问题。

然而,如今心理治疗师开始重新审视慈悲的概念及其治疗潜力。部分原因在于慈悲已逐渐被科学界所接受,特别是神经科学家与达赖喇嘛合作研究人们练习慈悲时大脑的变化(Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, & Davidson, 2008)。其次,对依恋的进化性质和重要性认识的加深也推动了慈悲的融入。依恋研究表明,父母对婴儿痛苦的敏感性及其回应能力,以及婴儿对这种关怀的响应性,根植于人类的进化特性(Mikulincer & Shaver,2007b)。第三,越来越多的证据表明,亲社会行为、情感联结、归属感和与他人的联系对心理健康有重大影响(Cacioppo & Patrick,2008),并对许多生理过程产生重要作用(Cozolino,2007),包括基因表达(Slavich & Cole,2013)。实际上,现在已有充分证据表明,当人类感到被重视、被爱、被关怀,以及能够去重视和关怀他人时,其功能表现最佳(Gilbert & Choden,2013)。因此,联结性关系是幸福的核心,但心理治疗界在探索联结情感的形成、共享及其治疗作用的过程中却显得缓慢。

在对联结性、亲社会性和慈悲行为的研究兴趣日益浓厚的背景下,许多治疗方法开始思考慈悲的本质及其治疗潜力。因此,作为主要的新兴心理治疗流派之一,接受与承诺疗法(ACT)也开始探索慈悲的意义及其在其理论框架中的价值。ACT一直认为治疗关系是治疗过程的核心(Pierson & Hayes,2007),但慈悲本身作为关注焦点的出现则是相对较新的现象。那么,ACT治疗师踏上慈悲之旅还有谁比丹尼斯·特奇博士(Dr. Dennis Tirch)、劳拉·西尔伯斯坦博士(Dr. Laura Silberstein)和本杰明·舍恩多夫博士(Dr. Benjamin Schoendorff)更适合担任向导呢?特奇博士不仅是一位经验丰富、世界知名的ACT治疗师,还接受过慈悲聚焦疗法(CFT)的训练(Gilbert 2009a,2010),并长期参与佛教实践。他创立了美国慈悲心基金会(The Compassionate Mind Foundation USA)和正念与CFT中心(The Center for Mindfulness and CFT),致力于在北美推广CFT的培训、研究与发展。舍恩多夫博士是ACT和功能分析心理治疗(FAP)的国际知名专家及培训师,他在心理治疗关系中强调自我慈悲的培养。西尔伯斯坦博士在情绪对心理灵活性作用方面具有专业知识,并长期研究、实践和撰写关于CFT、佛教心理学与ACT整合的文章。这些作者汇集了独特的学术背景和智慧,为如何将ACT、FAP、CFT等不同模式融入慈悲治疗提供了重要见解,提出了丰富而创新的观点。

同情(Compassion)的误解与澄清

同情(compassion)很容易被误解为爱或善意。事实上,最艰难却也最有力量的同情形式,往往针对我们既不爱也不喜欢的事物,这也包括我们自身的一些方面。在大乘佛教传统中,达赖喇嘛作为最有力的倡导者之一,将同情的核心定义为动机——即一种为了他人利益而努力的动机,被称为“菩提心”(bodhicitta)。这种动机旨在培养人们对自身和他人痛苦的敏感性,以及在注意力和情感上的调节能力,同时能够洞察痛苦的成因,并通过智慧与承诺去缓解和预防痛苦。

这种定义强调了一种积极的转向痛苦的态度,即直面痛苦及其根源,而非逃避它。这里的理念与接受与承诺疗法(ACT)的核心理念不谋而合,ACT自诞生以来便优雅地关注于情绪回避问题,并倡导人们接受真实的现状。更为重要的是,无论是在同情聚焦疗法(CFT)还是ACT中,同情不仅仅是为了缓解痛苦,而是为了促进幸福感。正因如此,CFT特别关注依恋和亲社会行为的动态,因为同情作为一个治疗焦点,必须同时包含促进幸福感和减少痛苦的目标。

同情的核心要素与ACT的心理灵活性

CFT尝试揭示同情的核心要素,包括:

  • 以关怀为中心的动机
  • 注意力的敏感性
  • 同情心
  • 痛苦的耐受力
  • 共情
  • 不评判的态度

通过帮助人们培养这些特质,CFT致力于提升人们的同情能力。而ACT则更多地聚焦于解放人们从内心纠结中脱身的原则。这种纠结的根源在于,人类除了与其他动物共享的基本动机与情绪之外,还在大约200万年前进化出独特的能力,如想象力、反刍、自我意识和自我监控。这些新进化的认知能力与更早期的情绪动机系统结合,往往会引发心理问题。

ACT的关键目标之一,是帮助人们从融合着痛苦情绪的负面自我监控和自我标签中解脱出来。而实现这一目标的核心能力之一便是心理灵活性(psychological flexibility)。与同情一样,心理灵活性并非简单的概念,而是一系列子过程的综合结果,包括:

  • 解离(defusion)
  • 价值观(values)
  • 作为背景的自我(self-as-context)
  • 接纳(acceptance)
  • 承诺行动(committed action)
  • 正念(mindfulness)

通过这些子过程的作用,ACT帮助个体走向更大的心理自由,并学会直面自身内心的困境。

因此,Tirch、Schoendorff 和 Silberstein 着手探讨同情与心理灵活性之间的不同过程如何相互关联,以及如何从彼此的视角进行考量。他们的目标不是将一种模型折叠进另一种模型,而是阐明 ACT 如何用其自身的术语解释同情的现象学。结果是一种关于培养同情或至少创造同情出现条件的创新且发人深省的叙述。因此,如果 ACT 实践者希望思考如何在 ACT 框架中将同情置于核心位置,这里提供了一种方法。

CFT 认为,同情的治愈品质根植于特定的心理状态,这些状态动员了核心的生理系统,这些系统部分是随着依恋、利他和关爱行为共同进化而来的(Gilbert,2009a),其中包括催产素和副交感神经系统中的有髓迷走神经。因此,CFT 涉及呼吸训练、正念、意象和身体聚焦的练习。CFT 还使用方法演技技巧,例如练习“就像……一样行动”,并想象自己是一个富有同情心的人(Gilbert,2010),这些技巧帮助来访者围绕同情的核心属性建立自我认同。这种自我认同随后成为焦点——用依恋理论的术语来说,是一个“安全基地”和“安全港湾”,从这里我们可以与痛苦建立联系。

ACT 的理论基础源于行为研究,它不依赖依恋理论,也不关注任何特定的生理机制如何创造一个更平静、更智慧、更有亲和力的心态。尽管 ACT 也将同情视为植根于古老的进化心理系统,它更强调合作而非关爱。对于 ACT 来说,合作的优势创造了进化压力,这些压力提升了人类合作的能力。其中显而易见的是语言交流以及作为世界象征的符号的使用。因此,词语和符号成为允许人们分享知识、概念和学习的指示器。但这一切的出现都离不开人类对彼此的基本兴趣、分享的愿望以及从分享中获得的喜悦感。在 ACT 中,人类语言和符号表征的进化打开了融合的大门;也就是说,符号和语言表征可能与个人的自我感受融合。相比之下,一只受到主导威胁并作出顺从反应的猴子不会具备语言或符号能力,因而不会开始认为自己是低等或从属的,也不会考虑这种经历对其生活和与其他猴子关系的影响——实际上,它根本不会有这种意义上的自我意识。因此,正如你所见,这本书非常关注“语言标记”这一概念,因为这是一种人类独有的能力。

在 CFT 中,这种能力虽非不重要,但重要性较低,因为 CFT 更关注直接经验,对“心中的情绪场景”及与自卑感相关的情绪记忆更感兴趣,而非它们的语言标记。例如,在羞耻感的案例中:如果父母对孩子生气,孩子会记下自己(条件化的情绪学习)引发他人愤怒的记忆。这被编码为“情绪场景”,而这种情绪场景成为随后的自我定义的基础。因此,一个曾经体验过父母愤怒的人(可能也被语言标记为不够好或糟糕)可能会谈论自己感到不够好或易受批评。但实际上,关键在于,他们表明“在我的情绪记忆中,我体验到自己是不够好的,是他人愤怒的目标”(Gilbert,2009c)。在 CFT 中,试图揭示这些强大的情绪体验(可被视为经典条件学习)是核心,而非探索体验的语言标记。因此,CFT 实践者会询问当事人何时首次这样认为自己,以及在谈到自己时会想到哪些早期场景。

然而,ACT 是目前最为显著的一种疗法,探索人类新进化的认知能力——如符号化、心理化、发展自我认同以及作为“自我背景”的能力——如何在决定我们对心理健康问题的脆弱性方面发挥重要作用。ACT 如何将这些在人类进化中适应的重要特征编织成一个关于同情的叙述是具有创新性的,而 Tirch、Schoendorff 和 Silberstein 再次提供了卓越的指导。

这些作者提供了许多临床示例,为ACT治疗师提供了有益的指导,同时也展现了ACT与CFT之间的重要对比点。例如,在CFT中,羞耻感和自我批评被视为许多心理问题的根源,而这些问题又根植于真实的或对社会失落和排斥的恐惧体验。自我批评的背后,是那些曾经被虐待、边缘化或遗忘者的恐惧,而支持这些心理机制的,是痛苦的情感记忆。事实上,CFT部分是为了应对这些有关自我思维和感受的方式而发展起来的。

CFT指出,弗洛伊德曾提出关于自我批评的两种基本理论。一种认为,自我批评来源于对父母批判性声音的内化,这有时被称为“超我禁令”;另一种认为,自我批评是内向的愤怒,人们在某些情况下无法将愤怒指向他们需要的他人,便转而对自己进行批评。针对这些不同类型的自我批评,治疗方法可能截然不同。例如,后者可能需要对压抑和回避的愤怒进行某种程度的处理(Busch, 2009);但无论是哪种情况,“放弃自我批评的恐惧”都是核心问题(Tierney & Fox, 2010)。确实,如今许多疗法都在尝试解决自我批评问题,因为它对心理健康的破坏性极大(Kannan & Levitt, 2013)。在CFT中,发展慈悲心旨在培养面对困难情境的勇气,这包括应对我们内心的一些“黑暗面”。

CFT特别指出,那些未在治疗中显现的情感可能是来访害怕面对的情感,同时也往往是最需要被处理的。例如,一个抑郁的个体可能非常愿意谈论自己的悲伤和失落感,但却不愿触及对未能保护或爱护他的父母的愤怒。同样,一个愤怒的人可能愿意对世界发泄怒气,但却完全没有意识到隐藏在背后的失落感和孤独感,这些情绪才是真正的悲伤和痛苦所在。

ACT治疗师对情绪回避的概念非常熟悉,并理解一种情绪可以作为安全策略掩盖另一种情绪。例如,在治疗愤怒时,ACT治疗师可能会问:“我看到你现在很愤怒,但如果我拨开愤怒的表层,后面可能会是什么?”(Robyn Walser, 个人交流, 2012)。

然而,在探索自我批评时,ACT也将重点放在经验的语言构建上。在多个临床案例中,我们可以看到ACT对语言表达的关注。这本书的作者写道:“理解那些导致自我厌恶并不断强化它的语言过程,可以帮助临床医生设计有针对性的干预措施,从而逐渐削弱自我批评行为,并促进对生活困境更具慈悲心的态度”(第91页)。这清楚地表明ACT如何将“语言经验”和标签视为自我厌恶的根源。在ACT中,我们通过语言将经历转化为自我表征;ACT重点关注人们用来描述自己经历的词语。

与此相比,CFT则更关注身体内的实际体验、形成这种体验的记忆,以及改变自我认同(例如“羞耻和自我批评的身份”)的恐惧。在后期的临床章节中,作者大量借鉴了CFT的方法,为ACT治疗师提供了许多创造慈悲心并利用其治疗潜力的新途径。在CFT中,“慈悲自我”这一概念帮助个体获得内在的勇气和智慧,从而开始处理内心的困难部分,无论是愤怒、焦虑还是创伤。

本书展示了ACT治疗师如何将他们独特的慈悲观引入治疗过程,甚至将其发展为核心价值观。当然,我们需要进一步研究以比较不同慈悲模型及其治疗策略的效果。然而,目前对理解和培养慈悲的努力至关重要。这不仅因为我们迫切需要更好的方法来帮助需要支持的人,更因为慈悲对创造一个更美好的世界至关重要。我们越深刻地理解慈悲,并找到在学校、企业和政治领域中培养慈悲的方法,那些尚未出生的人便越有可能生活在一个更公平、更公正、更有爱心的世界中。

Tirch、Schoendorff和Silberstein为我们提供了一本令人着迷且卓越的书籍,帮助我们踏上这段旅程。他们以真正的鼓励和热情撰写了这本书,充分挖掘了改善疗法的潜力。因此,本书对持续探索如何更好地帮助患者作出了重要贡献。 ——Paul Gilbert博士,英国心理学会会士,OBE勋章获得者

本章知识点阐述

知识点阐述

  1. 慈悲在心理治疗中的重要性
    本文强调了慈悲作为心理治疗目标的重要性及其科学依据,指出慈悲有助于促进心理健康和治疗效果。

  2. 慈悲的科学基础
    近年来,神经科学研究和进化心理学的发现为慈悲在治疗中的应用提供了强有力的支持。

  3. ACT与慈悲的结合
    接受与承诺疗法逐渐将慈悲纳入其治疗框架,突出了治疗关系和心理灵活性的重要性。

  4. 慈悲的进化与亲社会性
    依恋理论和亲社会行为研究进一步证实了慈悲对于心理健康和人类生存的重要意义。

  5. 多学派融合的探索
    本文展示了ACT、CFT和FAP等疗法在慈悲治疗领域的整合创新,提出了多学科协作的重要性。

知识点阐述

1. 同情的核心动机

同情的本质在于动机,而非简单的情感。这种动机需要超越喜欢与不喜欢的界限,对痛苦产生敏感并积极寻求解决的智慧和能力。

2. ACT与CFT的共同点与差异

  • 共同点:两者都关注减少痛苦与促进幸福感,并强调与痛苦正面接触的重要性。
  • 差异:CFT更关注同情的情感要素及其与依恋行为的关联,而ACT则以认知过程为核心,尤其是通过心理灵活性帮助人们应对内心冲突。

3. 心理灵活性的关键

心理灵活性是ACT的核心目标,其通过解离、正念、价值观等方式,帮助人们从痛苦中解放出来,学会以更健康的方式应对情绪和认知的纠葛。

4. 同情的促进作用

在治疗中,同情的引入不仅能减轻痛苦,还能通过建立更深层次的依恋与亲社会行为,促进个体的整体幸福感。

知识点阐述

  1. 同情与心理灵活性的关系

    • 同情(CFT)与心理灵活性(ACT)提供了两种不同的视角。CFT 更加关注依恋和情绪体验的生理基础,而 ACT 则强调语言与符号表征的进化作用。
    • 这两种方法并非相互排斥,而是可以互相借鉴,ACT 的语言标记和心理灵活性理论为同情的培养提供了创新的可能性。
  2. CFT 的核心特点

    • 依赖核心生理机制(如催产素、迷走神经)和依恋理论。
    • 强调情绪记忆和情绪场景的重要性,而非语言化的标记。
    • 通过呼吸训练、意象和正念等方法,帮助当事人建立一个以同情为核心的自我认同。
  3. ACT 的核心特点

    • 强调语言与符号的进化作用,尤其是语言标记对自我感受的塑造。
    • 关注心理灵活性的培养,通过接纳、专注当下、自我背景等过程帮助个体解脱痛苦。
  4. 两者的区别与联系

    • CFT 更关注情绪体验的直接处理,注重“情绪场景”和经典条件反射的学习。
    • ACT 注重符号和语言的力量,强调通过解构语言标记来帮助个体建立对自我的新视角。
    • 二者结合可能为同情的培养提供更多可能性,例如通过 ACT 的语言标记理论来深化对 CFT 的情绪场景的理解。

知识点阐述

CFT(慈悲聚焦疗法)的核心理念:

  • CFT认为,羞耻感和自我批评是许多心理问题的根源,并将其追溯到社会失落和排斥的真实或潜在威胁。
  • 自我批评可能来源于对批评性声音的内化(超我禁令)或内向的愤怒(无法表达的对他人的愤怒转向自身)。
  • CFT通过发展慈悲心来应对这些困难情感,帮助个体直面痛苦记忆和情绪,如未表达的愤怒或隐藏的孤独感。

ACT(接纳与承诺疗法)对语言和标签的关注:

  • ACT强调语言构建在塑造自我表征和自我批评中的作用,关注个体用词如何影响他们对自身和世界的看法。
  • 通过语言干预,ACT帮助来访识别和重新定义语言模式,从而削弱自我批评并促进慈悲心的培养。

ACT与CFT的比较:

  • CFT更注重身体内的实际体验和记忆,帮助来访发展一种慈悲的自我身份,以直面困难情绪。
  • ACT关注语言和符号的影响,通过理解和改变语言过程来减少心理痛苦。
  • 两者在应对羞耻、自我批评和情绪回避方面有着互补的视角。

慈悲在心理健康和社会进步中的意义:

  • 无论是ACT还是CFT,都强调慈悲心在应对心理困难中的重要作用。
  • 更广泛地理解和应用慈悲,不仅有助于个体心理健康,也对社会的公平、公正和关爱文化的形成至关重要。

前言 过去十年间,对慈悲心的科学研究兴趣日益浓厚。考虑到佛教在2500多年前就曾主张培养慈悲心是自我和他人幸福的关键,有人可能会说“是时候了”!然而,威廉·图克(William Tuke)在1796年创立了约克休养所(York Retreat),并有意识地试图创造一个充满同情心和支持的环境。医学史学家罗伊·波特(Roy Porter)(2002年)说:“图克的孙子塞缪尔(Samuel)曾指出,最初在那里尝试过一些医疗疗法,但收效甚微;然后休养所放弃了‘医疗’手段,转而采用‘道德’手段,即仁慈、温和、理性和人性,所有这些都在家庭氛围中进行——结果非常好。”(第104页) 然而,直到最近,慈悲心在心理治疗中的科学关注度并不高。尽管卡尔·罗杰斯(Carl Rogers)基于同理心和积极关注确定了治疗关系的核心要素,但“充满同情心的治疗关系”这一概念一直比较模糊,而有意识地培养对患者自身和他人的同情心作为治疗目标则是全新的(吉尔伯特,2009a,2010)。弗洛伊德学派早期的心理动力学理论主要关注人性阴暗的一面——性与暴力——而同情心只是这些阴暗面的升华(Kriegman, 1990, 2000)。行为主义者对恐惧的暴露感兴趣,认知疗法则热衷于帮助我们解决非理性思维问题。然而,如今的心理治疗师开始重新审视同情的概念及其治疗潜力。部分原因是同情已获得科学认可。这在很大程度上受到神经科学家与达赖喇嘛合作,研究人们在练习同情时大脑发生的变化(Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, & Davidson, 2008)的启发。将同情融入治疗的第二个主要动力来自越来越多地认识到依恋的进化本质和重要性,这种能力使父母能够敏感地感知婴儿的痛苦,并有能力对这种压力做出回应,使婴儿能够对这种关怀做出回应(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007b)。第三个影响因素是越来越多的证据表明,亲社会行为、情感和同情心在大脑中是相互关联的(Baumeister, 1998; Decety & Jack, 2005; Eisenberg, 1995; Keenan & Gzendy, 2005; Zaki & Ochsner, 2011)。社会支持、归属感和与他人的联系都对心理健康(Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008)和许多生理过程(Cozolino, 2007)产生重大影响,包括基因表达(Slavich & Cole, 2013)。事实上,现在有充分的证据表明,当人们感到被重视、被爱和被关心时,他们就能发挥出最佳状态,反过来也能对他人给予重视和关爱(Gilbert & Choden, 2013)。因此,社交关系是幸福的核心,令人惊讶的是,心理治疗师在研究社交情感的产生、分享和治愈过程方面进展如此缓慢。

与此同时,越来越多的研究开始关注亲社会行为和同情心,许多疗法开始思考同情心的性质和治疗潜力。因此,接受和承诺疗法(ACT)作为心理学治疗的新兴主要学派之一,开始考虑同情心在其自身语境下的性质和价值,这恰逢其时。ACT一直将治疗关系视为核心。治疗旅程(Pierson & Hayes, 2007),但最近才开始关注同情本身。因此,对于ACT治疗师来说,有什么比Drs. Dennis Tirch、Laura Silberstein和Benjamin Schoendorff更好的向导,来开始同情之旅呢?Tirch博士不仅是经验丰富的、世界公认的ACT治疗师,他还接受过以同情为中心的治疗(CFT;Gilbert 2009a, 2010)的培训,并多年来参与佛教实践。他创立了The Compassionate Mind Foundation USA(http://www.compassionfocusedtherapy.com)和The Center for Mindfulness and CFT(http://www.mindfulcompassion.com),这两个组织都致力于在北美进一步培训、研究和发展CFT。Schoendorff博士是ACT和功能分析心理治疗(FAP)的国际知名专家和培训师,他强调在心理治疗关系中培养自我同情。约翰逊博士 西尔伯斯坦是心理灵活性中情感作用方面的专家,在职业生涯中一直致力于研究、实践和撰写将CFT(接受与承诺疗法)、佛学心理学和ACT(接受与承诺疗法)整合在一起的内容。这些作者以其独特的学术和智慧为读者提供了关于ACT、FAP(功能分析心理学)和CFT等不同模型的重要见解,并提出了富有创新性的想法,即如何将这些方法整合起来,将同情心融入治疗重点。

同情很容易被误解,与爱和善良混淆。 事实上,最困难但最有力量的同情形式是对我们既不爱也不喜欢的事物,这包括我们自己的某些方面。在大乘佛教传统中,达赖喇嘛是其中最有影响力的倡导者之一,同情的核心是动机——为他人谋利益的动机,称为菩提心。这种动机是培养自己对自身和他人痛苦的敏感性和注意力,能够洞察痛苦的原因,并获得智慧和承诺,试图减轻和预防痛苦。显然,这里包含了朝向痛苦、进入痛苦之风,而不是远离它的动机;培养愿意与痛苦及其原因接触的意愿。在这里,我们看到了与ACT的直接共鸣,自创立以来,ACT优雅地关注了情感回避问题,并培养了愿意以事物本来面貌体验事物的意愿。然而,更重要的是,在CFT和ACT中,同情被作为一种治疗重点,不仅用于缓解痛苦,还用于促进个人成长和自我实现。这也是为什么CFT非常关注依恋和亲社会行为的深层动态的原因之一。将同情作为治疗的焦点必须是为了促进幸福,而不仅仅是减少痛苦。虽然CFT试图阐明同情的一些关键要素,比如以关怀为导向的动机、注意力敏感性、同情心、忍受痛苦的能力、共情和无条件判断,并帮助人们培养这些品质,但ACT则更关注帮助人们从心灵编织的纠缠中解脱的原则。这些纠缠的产生是因为除了与动物共享的基本动机和情感之外,大约200万年前,人类进化出了想象力、沉思、自我意识和自我监控的能力。ACT关注的是这些新进化出的认知能力如何与较老的情感动机系统整合和融合。帮助人们摆脱与痛苦情绪紧密结合的负面自我监控和自我标签是至关重要的,ACT称之为心理灵活性。像同情心一样,这个概念也不是一个简单的概念;这确实是一系列子过程的结果,比如解离、价值观、自我作为背景、接纳、承诺行动和觉知。因此,特里奇、舍恩多夫和西尔伯斯坦决定考虑慈悲和心理灵活性这些不同的过程之间是如何相互关联的,以及从对方的角度来看,如何考虑每一个过程。时间 目的不是将一种模型简化为另一种模型,而是阐明ACT如何用自己的术语来处理同情的现象学。结果是一种创新且发人深省的叙事,关于培养同情心的新方法,或者至少是创造同情心产生的条件。因此,如果ACT从业者想要思考如何在ACT术语中将同情心置于中心位置,这里是一种方法。

CFT认为,同情的治疗效果植根于特定的心理状态,这些状态会招募与依恋、利他主义和关怀行为共同进化的核心生理系统(Gilbert, 2009a)——催产素和副交感神经系统的髓鞘状迷走神经是其中的两个系统。因此,CFT涉及呼吸训练、正念、想象力和身体聚焦工作。CFT还使用方法演技技巧来练习“假装……”,并想象自己是一个有同情心的人(Gilbert, 2010),这有助于来访围绕同情的核心特质建立自我身份。

这种自我意识随后就成为焦点——用依恋术语来说就是“安全基地”和“安全港”——从中我们可以与痛苦接触。

ACT从行为研究中汲取理论养分,并不依赖于依恋理论,也不关注可能产生平静、明智、亲社会的心态的特定潜在生理机制。尽管ACT也认为同情植根于古老的进化心理系统,但它将进化的重点放在合作而非关怀上。对于ACT来说,合作的优势创造了进化压力,增强了人类合作的能力。显然,其中一些优势包括口头交流和开放用于世界象征的语言。因此,词汇和符号成为标志,使人们能够分享知识、概念和学习。但是,所有这些都无法在人们没有彼此的基本兴趣、分享的愿望和分享的快乐的情况下出现。在ACT中,人类语言的进化和它所允许的象征性和口头表达开启了融合之门;也就是说,象征性和口头表达可以与一个人的自我感融合。相比之下,一只受到威胁的猴子不会产生这种融合。主导者和服从者之间如果缺乏语言或符号的交流,就无法开始思考自己处于劣势或从属地位,也无法考虑这种经历对其生活和与其他猴子的关系所产生的影响——实际上,他们无法从这个意义上拥有自我意识。因此,正如你所看到的,这本书对“言语标签”的概念给予了特别的关注,因为这是人类独有的能力。

这在CFT中并非不重要,但相对而言并不那么重要,因为CFT更关注直接经验,并对“头脑中的情感场景”和与自卑感相关的情感记忆感兴趣,而不是它们的言语标签。例如,在羞耻感的例子中:如果父母对孩子生气,孩子会将自我的记忆(条件性情感学习)编码为刺激他人愤怒的行为。这被编码为“情感场景”,而这样的情感场景将成为后续自我定义的基础。因此,一个经历过父母的愤怒(可能还对他们进行了言语上的贬低或责备)的人可能会谈论自己感觉不够好或容易受到批评。但实际上关键在于,他们这表明“在我的情感记忆中,我曾经体验过自己是不值得的,是别人愤怒的对象”(吉尔伯特,2009c)。在CFT中,它试图阐明这些强大的情感体验,这些体验可以用经典的条件反射学习术语来描述,这是核心,而不是探索言语标签来体验。因此,CFT治疗师会询问当这个人第一次这样看待自己时是什么时候,以及当她以这种方式谈论自己时脑海中浮现出的早期场景。

然而,重要的是,ACT是最著名的探索我们的新进化出的认知能力(符号化、心理化、形成自我认同以及将自我作为背景)在决定我们易患心理健康问题的脆弱性方面的疗法。ACT以同情的故事重构这些重要的进化适应,这是创新的,特里奇、舍恩多夫和西尔伯斯坦提供了很好的指导。

Foreword The last ten years have seen a proliferation of interest in the scientific study of compassion. Given that Buddhism argued that the cultivation of compassion is central to the well-­being of self and others over 2,500 years ago, some would say “about time”! Yet when William Tuke established one of the first therapeutic communities at the York Retreat in 1796, he purposely tried to create a compas- sionate, supportive environment. The medical historian Roy Porter (2002) says “Tuke’s grandson Samuel noted that medical therapies had initially been tried there with little success; the Retreat had then abandoned ‘medical’ for ‘moral’ means, kindness, mildness, reason, and humanity, all within a family atmosphere—­with excellent results” (p. 104). However, until recently, compassion has not fared well as a scientific focus in psychotherapy. Although Carl Rogers identified core ingredients of the ther- apeutic relationship based on empathy and positive regard, the idea of the “com- passionate therapeutic relationship” was always rather vague, while the deliberate cultivation of compassion for self and others in our clients as a therapeutic aim is entirely new (Gilbert, 2009a, 2010). The early psychodynamic formulations of Freudians focused on the darker side of humanity—­sexuality and violence—­ and compassion was but a sublimation of these (Kriegman 1990, 2000). Behaviorists were interested in exposure to what we fear, and cognitive thera- pies were keen to help us our address our irrational thinking. Today, however, psychotherapists are beginning to look anew at the concept of compassion and its therapeutic potential. Part of this is because compassion has gained scientific acceptability. This was especially inspired by neuroscientists working with the Dalai Lama and studying what happens in the brain when people practice compassion (Lutz, Brefczynski-­Lewis, Johnstone, & Davidson, 2008). A second major impetus for the integration of compassion in therapy has come from the increasing recognition of the evolved nature and importance of attachment, which is rooted in competencies for parents to be sensitive to the distress of their infants and have the ability to respond to that stress, and for infants to be responsive to that care (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007b). A third influence is the growing evidence that prosocial behavior, affec- tion, affiliation, and a sense of belonging and connectedness with others all have major impacts on mental well-­being (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008) and on many physiological processes (Cozolino, 2007), including genetic expression (Slavich & Cole, 2013). In fact, there is good evidence now to suggest that humans function at their best when they feel valued, loved, and cared for, and when they in turn can be valuing and caring of others (Gilbert & Choden, 2013). So affiliative relationships are the center of well-­being, and it’s rather surprising that psychotherapists have been so slow in looking at the processes by which affiliative emotion is created, is shared, and heals. Against this growing research interest in affiliative, prosocial, and compas- sionate behavior, many therapies now are beginning to think about the nature and therapeutic potential of compassion. It is therefore timely that acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), as one of the major new schools of psycho- therapy, is also beginning to consider the nature and value of compassion within its own context. ACT has always seen the therapeutic relationship as central to the therapeutic journey (Pierson & Hayes, 2007), but it is comparatively recently that compassion itself has become a focus of interest. So, what better guides to have for the ACT therapist to begin the journey into compassion than Drs. Dennis Tirch, Laura Silberstein, and Benjamin Schoendorff? Dr. Tirch not only is an experienced and world-­recognized ACT therapist, he has trained in compassion-­focused therapy (CFT; Gilbert 2009a, 2010) and been involved with Buddhist practice for many, many years. He has established The Compassionate Mind Foundation USA (http://www.compassionfocusedtherapy .com) and The Center for Mindfulness and CFT (http://www.mindfulcompas sion.com), both of which seek to further training, research, and development of CFT in North America. Dr. Schoendorff is an internationally known expert in and trainer of ACT and functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) who empha- sizes training self-compassion in the psychotherapeutic relationship. Dr. Silberstein is an expert in the role of emotions in psychological flexibility and has been researching, practicing, and writing about the integration of CFT, Buddhist psychology, and ACT throughout her career. These authors bring unique schol- arship and wisdom to offer important insights into the different models of ACT, FAP, CFT, and more, with rich and innovative ideas on how these approaches can be integrated in bringing compassion into therapeutic focus. Compassion is easily misunderstood and confused with love and kindness. In fact, the hardest but most powerful forms of compassion are for things we neither love nor like, and this includes such things in ourselves. In the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, for which the Dalai Lama is one of the most powerful advo- cates, the core of compassion is motivation—­the motivation to be of benefit to others—­called bodhicitta. This motivation is to cultivate one’s ability to be sen- sitive and attentionally and emotionally attuned to the suffering in self and others, able to see into its causes and to acquire the wisdom and commitment to try to alleviate and prevent it. Captured here is obviously the motivation to turn toward suffering, into its wind, rather than away from it; to cultivate a willingness to engage with suffering and its causes. Here we see an immediate resonance with ACT, which since its inception has focused so elegantly on the issue of emotional avoidance and on creating a willingness to experience things as they are. More importantly, however, in both CFT and ACT, compassion is made a therapeutic focus not just for the relief of suffering but for the promotion of well-­being. This is partly why CFT pays a lot of attention to the underlying dynamics of attachment and affiliative behavior. Compassion as a therapeutic focus must be about promoting well-­being, not just reducing suffering. While CFT has sought to illuminate some of the key constituents of compassion—­such as care-­focused motivation, attentional sensitivity, sympa- thy, distress tolerance, empathy, and nonjudgment—­and to help people culti- vate these attributes, ACT has focused more on principles of liberating people from the tangles the mind can weave. These tangles arise because in addition to basic motives and emotions that we share with other animals, about 2 million years ago humans evolved capacities for imagination, rumination, a sense of self, and self-­monitoring. The way these newly evolved cognitive competencies integrate and fuse with older emotion motivational systems is a central concern for ACT. Essential to helping people disengage from aversive self-­monitoring and self-­labeling that have become fused with painful emotions is the cultiva- tion of what ACT calls psychological flexibility. Like compassion, this concept is not a straightforward one; it is really an outcome of a number of sub-­processes such as defusion, values, self-­as-­context, acceptance, committed action, and mindfulness. So Tirch, Schoendorff, and Silberstein set themselves the task of consider- ing how the different processes of compassion and psychological flexibility relate to each other and how each can be considered from the other’s perspective. The aim is not to collapse one model into another but to illuminate how ACT can address the phenomenology of compassion in its own terms. The result is an innovative and thought-­provoking narrative on new ways of cultivating com- passion, or at least creating the conditions for it to arise. So if ACT practitioners want to think about how they can bring compassion center ground in ACT terms, here is a way of doing so. CFT suggests that the healing qualities of compassion are rooted in particu- lar states of mind that recruit core physiological systems that evolved in part alongside attachment, altruism, and caring behavior (Gilbert, 2009a)—­oxytocin and the myelinated vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system being two such systems. So CFT involves breath training, mindfulness, imagery, and body-­focusing work. CFT also uses method acting techniques to practice acting as if…, and imagining oneself to be a compassionate person (Gilbert, 2010), which help clients to build a self-­identity around the core attributes of compassion. This sense of self then becomes the focus—­the secure base and safe haven, to use attachment terms—­from which we can engage with suffering. ACT derives its theoretical nutrients from behavioral research, and it does not call on attachment theory or focus on any specific underlying physiological mechanisms that may create a calmer, wiser, more affiliative mind. Although ACT also sees compassion as rooted in ancient evolved systems of mind, it places its evolutionary emphasis on cooperation, rather than caring. For ACT, the advantages of cooperation created evolutionary pressures that enhanced human beings’ abilities to cooperate. Obvious ones were verbal communication and languages open to the use of symbols as representations of the world. So, words and symbols became signifiers that allowed people to share knowledge, concepts, and learning. But none of that could arise without people having a fundamental interest in each other and a desire to share, as well as to take some joy in the sharing. In ACT it was the evolution of human language and the symbolic and verbal representations it enabled that opened the door to fusion; that is to say, symbolic and verbal representations could become fused with a person’s sense of self. By contrast, a monkey that experienced threat from a dominant and responded submissively would not have the linguistic or symbolic capacity to begin to think of itself as inferior and subordinate or consider the consequences of that experience for its life and relationships with other monkeys—­indeed, it wouldn’t have a sense of self in this sense. So as you will see, this book has a lot of focus on the concept of verbal labeling, since that is an ability unique to humans. This is not unimportant in CFT, but less important, because CFT is more focused on direct experience and would be interested in the “emotional scenes in the mind” and the emotional memories associated with feelings of inferior- ity, rather than their verbal labeling. For instance, in the case of shame: If a parent is angry with a child, the child lays down memories of self (conditioned emotional learning) as stimulating anger in others. This is coded as an “emo- tional scene,” and such emotional scenes become the basis for subsequent self-­ definition. So an individual who has experienced anger from a parent (and may also have verbally labeled them as inadequate or bad) may talk about feeling inadequate or vulnerable to criticism. But actually the key is they are indicating that “In my emotional memory, I have experienced myself as inad- equate and as the target of others’ anger” (Gilbert, 2009c). In CFT, it is trying to illuminate these powerful emotional experiences, which can be seen in clas- sical conditioning learning terms, that is central, rather than exploring verbal labels to experience. So a CFT practitioner would inquire when that individual first thought of herself like that and what early scenes come to mind when she talks about herself in that way. Importantly, however, ACT is the most prominent therapy exploring the way our newly evolved cognitive competencies for symbolization, mentalizing, developing a self-­identity, and having the self-­as-­context play significant roles in determining our vulnerability to mental health difficulties. The way ACT cho- reographs these important evolutionary adaptations in the human line in a story of compassion is innovative, and again, Tirch, Schoendorff, and Silberstein provide excellent guidance. These authors offer many clinical examples which helpfully guide the ACT therapist and also offer important points of contrast between ACT and CFT. For example, in CFT, shame and self-­criticism are seen to be at the root of many psychological difficulties, but they in turn are rooted in real and feared experi- ences of social loss and rejection. Behind self-­criticism are the fears of the abused, marginalized, and forgotten, and fueling them are painful emotional memories. Indeed, CFT was partly born out of efforts to work with these ways of thinking and feeling about oneself. CFT notes that Freud had two basic theo- ries of self-­criticism. One was that self-­criticism arose from the internalization of the critical voice of the parent, sometimes referred to as superego prohibi- tion. The other was that it was anger turned inward, whereby people became critical of themselves rather than directing anger towards others whom they needed in some way. The treatment of these may be quite different, with the latter requiring some engagement with repressed and avoided rage (Busch, 2009); but for each case, the fear of giving up self-­criticism is central (Tierney & Fox, 2010). Indeed, many therapies now have their ways of working with self-­criticism because it’s potentially so disruptive to well-­being (Kannan & Levitt, 2013). In CFT we develop compassion to develop the courage to engage with the difficult stuff, which includes some of the darker aspects of our minds. Indeed, CFT suggests that the emotions that don’t turn up in the therapy can be ones the client is frightened of, and the ones that require the most work. For example, a depressed person might be quite confident in talking about his sadness and sense of loss but not about the rage he feels for the parent who failed to protect him or love him as he needed or wanted. Similarly, the angry person may be quite happy to rage about the world but entirely out of touch with the sense of loss and loneliness that hides real grief and pain. ACT thera- pists will be very familiar with experiential avoidance and the idea that one emotion can be a safety strategy to hide another emotion. The ACT therapist treating the angry person might ask “I see you are angry right now, but if I was to peel back the anger, what might I see behind it?” (Robyn Walser, personal communication, 2012). However, when exploring self-­criticism, ACT also places a central focus on the verbal construction of experience. Time and again in the clinical anecdotes we see this focusing on verbal representations. As the authors of this book write, “Understanding the verbal processes that lie at the root of self-­hatred and rein- force it can help clinicians devise targeted interventions that can gradually undermine self-­critical behavior and foster a more compassionate approach to how hard it is to live in this world” (p. 91). This makes it clear how ACT sees “verbal experience” and labeling as being at the root of self-­hatred. In ACT, we verbally create representations of ourselves out of the experiences that we have had; ACT focuses on the words people use to describe their experience.

Meanwhile, CFT would focus on in-­the-­body experience, the actual memories that created this experience, and fear of changing an identity of being a shame- ful, self-­critical person. In some of the later clinical chapters, the authors draw heavily from the CFT approach, offering ACT practitioners many new ways of creating compassion and utilizing its therapeutic potential. Central there is the fact that the “compassionate self” CFT encourages individuals to build helps them access the inner courage and wisdom necessary to begin to work with dif- ficult aspects of the mind, be they anger, anxiety, or trauma. This book shows how ACT practitioners can bring their own unique version of compassion into the therapeutic process, even to the degree that it can become a core value. At some point, of course, we will need to do further research to see how different models of compassion and their therapeutic strate- gies compare. But for the moment, endeavors to understand and cultivate com- passion are vitally important. This is not just because we desperately need better ways to understand and help those seeking our support but because compassion is crucial to the creation of a better world. The more deeply we understand compassion and how to cultivate it in our schools, businesses, and politics, the greater the chance is that those yet to be born will arrive in a fairer, more just, and caring world. Tirch, Schoendorff, and Silberstein offer us a fascinating and remarkable book to help us on that journey. They’ve written the book in a spirit of real encouragement and enthusiasm for the potential of improving our thera- pies. As such, it makes a significant contribution to the ongoing journey to understand and find ways to better help patients. —­Paul Gilbert, PhD, FBPsS, OBE